Wine is grape juice that has been fermented; it is essentially the result of a metabolic by-product of the one-celled organism, yeast, which converts its favourite food, sugar, into ethyl alcohol, carbon dioxide and heat. Grape juice at 16°-26°C represents a sugar and nutrient-rich medium which is ideal for flourishing reproduction of the many species of yeast. Yeasts have limited generation times and are fiercely competitive. If conditions suit one yeast strain better than another, it will quickly establish itself as the primary fermenting organism. Whether a spontaneous fermentation with indigenous yeast or an inoculated fermentation with cultured yeast, it is nearly always a strain of the alcohol and SO2 tolerant Saccharomyces species (usually cerevisae or bayanus) that successfully completes the fermentation. As grape juice metamorphoses into wine, yeast shapes the aroma, flavour, mouthfeel and alcohol content of wine. Spontaneous fermentation with indigenous yeasts has been the traditional way to make wine for thousands of years. Deliberate inoculation with cultured yeast is a fairly new winemaking technique. Some winemakers argue that authentic expression of terroir and vintage can only be achieved through fermentation with indigenous yeasts. Other winemakers prefer the greater security and controlled variability of specialized strains. There are in fact, advantages and disadvantages for both indigenous and cultured yeasts and these shall be examined in this essay.
There are numerous indigenous yeast species found in the vineyard. In a study of spontaneous at the Geisenheim Research Centre, there were nearly10,000 yeast species identified and isolated in the 2009 vintage – Saccharomyces cerevisiae made up less than 1% of the population on the grapes in the research vineyard. The surface of grapes, particularly at the place where the grape berries are attached to the stem, is typically dominated by the Hanseniaspora and Kloeckera species. These species initiate the fermentation and die off once low alcohol levels of around 5% by volume are achieved and others will take over. Twenty or more different yeasts may participate in a fermentation. The source of Saccharomyces is predominantly winery machinery and equipment surfaces and it is this yeast genus that will take over a successful fermentation. One of the major advantages of fermentation with indigenous yeast lies in the timing and duration of fermentation. A delay in the onset of vigorous fermentation allows oxygen to react with anthocyanins and other phenols present in the must to enhance colour stability and accelerate phenolic polymerization which enhances texture and mouthfeel. It has been demonstrated that in long slow fermentations fewer aromatics may be burnt off and in addition small amounts of sulphide compounds may be produced that make a wine interesting without full hydrogen sulphide stink. Producers of “natural” wines and/or organic wines are often proponents of non-intervention in their philosophy for expression of terroir. The philosophy of a wine with no additives or processing agents is an attractive one for many consumers and phrases like “spontaneous fermentation” or “wild” or “natural” yeasts have become positive slogans in sales communications.
Yeast populations vary from vineyard to vineyard, vintage to vintage, and cellar to cellar and determining which yeasts are present is difficult because this is in constant flux. The main risk of indigenous yeast lies in delayed onset of fermentation and limited fermentation capacities. Deficient yeast strains can expose the must to the danger of bacterial contamination, oxidation and the formation of off-flavours and/or undesired components like acetaldehyde, biogenic amines, acetic acid and excessive volatile sulphur compounds. Risks connected with inefficient fermentations can be mitigated by ensuring that juice and fermenting must provide an environment that is more advantageous for the type of yeast the winemaker wants to promote. Superb cellar hygiene is not the only means of control; indigenous yeasts are also less tolerant of SO2 and warmer fermentation temperatures. Since converting to certified biodynamic viticulture, Kurt Feiler of the Feiler-Artinger Estate in Burgenland, Austria also now abstains from use of pure cultivated yeast. He says, “I use compost and return grape pomace and stems to the vineyard. I believe this has helped in establishing a flourishing and dependable yeast flora. It also promotes nitrogen and provides grapes with the necessary nourishment for fermentation. Lag times in vinification onset can be minimized by the use of a pied de cuve. You’ve got to be patient and willing to accept the idiosyncrasies of the vintage. My Pinot Blanc fermented only to halbtrocken in 2008.” The Feiler Artinger Estate is small, producing only 160,000 bottles divided between about 25 different wines each year. None of his fermentations occur in huge vessels. If one fermentation is not successful, the potential financial implications will not be disastrous. The financial risk of spontaneous fermentation for large volume vessels is potentially staggering, whether of an entry-level or premium quality wine.
One significant advantage of cultured yeast is its ability to quickly establish dominance in the yeast population in early stages of fermentation. Inoculation with one of the many Saccharomyces species ensures an efficient and dependable fermentation. By limiting the danger of a stuck fermentation, microbial stability is encouraged and the development of sulphur compounds (H2S) is hindered. There are numerous species of Saccharomyces and they can be chosen to enhance specific wine styles. The current trend of longer hang times to achieve higher physiological ripeness in tannic red wines is resulting in problematic musts with high potential alcohol and high pH. High pH diminishes the effectiveness of SO2 and even some Saccharomyces species will die off at high alcohol levels before the wine is rendered dry. Commercial yeast strains such as Lalvin Clos have been cultivated specifically for efficient and complete fermentation in a high alcohol, high pH, and low-nutrient milieu and are adaptable to different fermentation temperatures and help promote MLF. At the Shaw and Smith winery in the Adelaide Hills, Michael Hall Smith MW has been able to demonstrate how different cultured yeast strains consistently promoted unique sensory profiles in Chardonnay independent of vintage and has chosen different yeast strains for different vineyard plots that enhance vineyard character and minerality. In an effort to replicate the aroma complexity derived from the diversity of indigenous yeasts in a spontaneous fermentation, the AWRI has developed two pre-mixed blends of compatible non-Saccharomyces und S. cerevisae strains that display strong performance and aroma enhancement. Production of traditional bottle-fermented sparkling wine requires the addition of cultured yeast and they are chosen for their ability to ferment dry at high alcohol levels and for their flocculation tendencies which aid degorgement. Makers of botrytized sweet wines will also often chose cultured yeasts that are resistant to the natural antibiotic properties of noble rot. There are currently two authorized gene manipulated wine yeasts permitted for use in North America. The ML01 initiates MLF simultaneously with alcoholic fermentation thus excluding the production of bioamines by lactic bacteria – potentially a welcome development for wine lovers with allergies and asthma.
With the higher dependability and predictability of cultured yeast, their disadvantage is largely philosophical and consumer perception. Unlike indigenous yeast, cultured yeast must be purchased, but their cost when weighed against the potential financial impact of a fermentation gone wary is minimal. Many different yeast strains and combinations of yeast strains are available on the market and they are not all of equal quality and they must be stored and re-hydrated and properly dosed for their successful use. Unlike opponents of all wine additives and processing agents, a winemaker using cultivated yeasts will not likely have a philosophical argument against adjustment of pH or additions of a yeast nutrient like Fermaid® or commercial yeast protectors. A listing of these additives and certainly the mention of the use of a gene manipulated yeast on the label will not be viewed as positively by most consumers as “use of native, natural yeast only”. Laws to protect consumers and their rights to know the contents of a food product and processing agents used to produce it will require more specific labelling in the future.
The choice between the use of indigenous and cultured yeast is largely a philosophical discussion. On one extreme, there is a movement towards more “natural” wines and wines that express an authentic and unadulterated expression of vintage and terroir – wines sourced from organic fruit with no additives or processing agents and even minimal or no sulphur dioxide. On the other side we have cultured yeast technologies that are constantly being perfected to fit specific musts and wine styles, including even gene manipulated yeasts with potential human health benefits. Beyond the philosophical discussion, the choice of indigenous yeast or cultured yeast will also depend on the style of wine that is to be made and the volume in which it is produced. Stricter labelling regulations in the future will shed more positive light on wines with less additives and processing agents unless the consumer can be convinced that these additions are good for him. Whichever option a vintner chooses, whether a fermentation is successful in achieving the desired wine style and quality goal will be dependent on the winemaker ensuring that juice and fermenting must provide an environment that is more advantageous for the type of yeast the winemaker wants to promote.
The IMW 2010/2011 academic year is under way! I met with three other students here in the Tirol this last weekend for tasting training. We did a blind tasting paper of 12 wines based on a past exam and tasted under exam conditions. I’ve sent my paper to my mentor with the request that he take a look at it and give me some suggestions for improvement. Our first theory assignment is due on December 7. I have chosen the topic: Examine the advantages and disadvantages of indigeous and cultured yeast in the production of wine.
I’ve been suffering a bout of insomnia lately, but finally had a good night’s sleep last night. this what I felt like this morning:
The title of James Suckling’s newest teaser video for his new website is misleading. In “How do you describe a great wine” Suckling gives winemakers and estate managers lists of aromas he identifies in some of the world’s most rare and expensive wines. Not once do you hear a word from the others in the video who have not only played a role in creating these great wines, but that have tasted them many, many more times than Sucklig. It is like someone telling painters of great masterpieces which colours they see and putting it on video.
Certainly in describing a great wine there should be discussion of composition, structure and evolvement.
On his facebook wall, Suckling posts a link to this video and asks “Why do people get so angry about my videos?” His videos don’t make me angry, but they sure make me laugh. They seem to be a parody of a certain narcisstic stereotype we all love to hate. For that reason, I find the videos highly entertaining. I particularly love the incredulous look on his face when he says, “wow” at the end of the video.
I must say I am curious about his up and coming website. Will it be informative and have everything that these videos lack? Or will it be a continuation of the parody? The latter would probably get a lot more hits!
The Seewinkel region on the east side of Lake Neusiedl in Burgenland, Austria is an extraordinary example of a traditional human settlement and land use representative of a culture. A complex eco-system and wine cultivation have co-existed for thousands of years.
(c) AWMB Lukan
The European Wine Bloggers Conference 2010 took place in Vienna from the October 22nd to October 24. Wein Burgenland sponsored a post conference to the three DAC appellations of the region, Eisenberg, Mittelburgenland and Leithaberg and asked me to help guide the tour. So it was that I had the honour of showing an international group of bloggers from the UK, USA, France, Norway, Russia, China, Spain, Italy, Greece and Germany a very special part of Austrian wine country.
But this post is not so much about wine, but about a unique ecosystem of which wine is a part. During the post conference tour we did not visit the east side of Lake Neusiedl and some questions from EWBC participants have risen about the so-called “Seewinkel” region that I would like to help illuminate here.
Lake Nesiedl looking from Illmitz towards the Leitha Mountains (c)Sevenich
The Seewinkel was originally understood as only the area around Podersdorf, Apetlon and Illmitz. By looking at a map of the Lake one can see that it is shaped like a shoe horn an in the bend of the lake one finds these three villages famous for their botrytized sweet wines. The area northeast of Seewinkel was called Heideboden and that is still the name of the extensive flat vineyard area stretching from south of Gols to Frauenkirchen. The area southeast was called Hanság. Today the entire region south of Gols, Mönchhof and Halbturn, which mark the ridge of the Parndorf Plateau, stretching south to Pamhagen is referred to as the Seewinkel. This is where Austria’s lowest point of elevation is found.
Unique to the Seewinkel area are the numerous ponds. Around 40 shallow (around a half meter deep) ponds are found that due to their lack of discharge and feed, are high in their salt content. This area is the sunniest and windiest part of Austria with a continental climate strongly influenced by the Pannonian Plains stretching far into Hungary to the east. The sun and autumn fog rising from Lake Neusiedl and the numerous ponds provide ideal preconditions for the development of Botrytis cinerea, otherwise know in the wine world as noble rot. This desirable fungus shrivels grapes concentrating their sugars and flavours for the creation of luscious sweet wines.
The Seewinkel also provides a habitat for numerous birds and other fauna and flora and belongs to the National Park Neusiedler See-Seewinkel and is protected by the WWF. The Seewinkel is also part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Fertő/Neusiedler See recognized in 2001.
The Seewinkel is a habitat for a large number of birds. (c)Sevenich
To truly understand the Seewinkel, one needs a little background understanding about Lake Neusiedl and its history.
The Hungarian name for Lake Neusiedl is Fertő, which means “swamp”. It is one of the few steppe lakes found in Europe and the lake is on both Austrian and on Hungarian territory. The lake surface is currently around 320 square kilometres and is source 80% from rain water. The lake is almost completely surrounded by a broad belt of reeds. Due to prevailing north-westerly air flow, the reed growth is significantly less on the east bank than on the west. In Donnerskirchen, the reed belt is up to eight miles wide while opposite in Podersdorf one finds the only relatively reed-free shore. Reed growth did not become prolific until the mid-19th century. The drastic spread of reeds between 1909 and 1965 to its current 100 km² has been due to the agricultural use of fertilizers and the construction of the “Einser” (Nr. 1) channel which has significantly diminished salinity of the lake.
10-15% of the reed belt is harvested each year. Because the young, one year old reeds are the best for industrial use, this has led to illegal burning of old reed areas to make room for young growth. The regional government is planning a biomass power plant which shall make use of the old reeds. The young reeds are used as building material for stucco, roofing and insulation. Reed matts are also used to dry grapes over a period of 2-3 months before vinifying a local sweet wine specialty called “Strohwein”.
Lake Neusiedl has fluctuated drastically over the centuries – from nearly complete drying out to its largest recorded size of 515 km² in 1768. This has meant that in periods where the lake was small, farms and villages were established in the Seewinkel region which were later abandoned in times when the lake expanded. In times when the lake was nearly dried out it would freeze completely in winter, killing the complete stock of fish. These fluctuations have also meant economic boom and bust for the region.
Between 1775 and 1780, the first channel was constructed through the Hanság region (Seewinkel) between Pamhagen and Esterháza. The lake dried out again over the following 40 years and the Seewinkel area experienced an economic boom. But the channel was small and the lake flooded again and a cycle of repeated fluctuations followed once again. Rice was even cultivated between 1864 and 1870. As the lake and the surrounding soils dried out, the wind spread salty dust in the surrounding villages and vineyards. Salt resistant plants settled in the area that are otherwise found only on sea coasts.
After repeated fluctuations, construction of the Einser Channel began in 1895 and was completed in 1909, but the original intention was not to drain, but to regulate the lake.
After results of conference held in May 1918, Nicholas Esterházy IV decided on June 15, that Lake Neusiedl should indeed be completely drained to make way for permanent agricultural use of the land. His plans were dashed as Burgenland (which had up to then been under Hungarian crown) was annexed to Austria in 1921 and hunters, environmentalists and citizens opposed complete draining of the lake.
Lake fluctuations continued. In 1929, the lake froze completely again and the complete fish stock was once again destroyed. The lake flooded communities in the Seewinkel in 1941.
A scheme in Mekszikópuszta in 1965 addressed the issues of fluctuation and has since reduced the danger of flooding and slowed the growth of the reed belt.
Sandy vineyard soils of the Seewinkel (c)Julia Sevenich
Government authorities have commissioned the University of Agricultural Sciences to predict the future of the lake. Extensive desiccation of Lake Neusiedl is expected between 2010 and 2050, partly due to climate change. Work is underway to determine whether a supply of water from the Danube in the north of Lake Neusiedl is possible. One problem is the process of the structural requirements, but the difference in the composition of the two inland waters is also environmentally problematic. Additional nutrients and lower salt content of the Danube water would again accelerate the growth of the reed belt.
A couple friends at the European Wine Bloggers Conference in Vienna this past weekend asked me for a list of producers of wine from organic grapes in Austria. It takes three years of observed and controlled conversion before a winery’s vineyards may become certified organic in the EU. There are currently several wineries that are in the conversion process, so the number of producers of wines from organic grapes in Austria continues to grow.
Currently certified are the following producers:
Weinbau Aichinger
Weingut Andrelhof
Arkadenhof Hausdorf
Weingärtnerei Artner
Weingut Beilschmidt
Weingut Bernthaler + Bernthaler
Bio-Musterweingut Josef Loimer
Weingut Biohof Lang
Weingut Holger Hagen CARPE VINUM
Bioweingut Diwald
Bioweingut Edelhof
Weingut Rudolf Fidesser
Weingut Friedrich Kuczera
Weingut Geyerhof
Weinbau Graf
Bioweingut Anton Groiss
Weingut Hager Matthias
Bioweingut Heideboden
Biohof Heideboden
Weingut Helmut und Petra Bergmann
Weingut Herrenhof Lamprecht
Weingut Höpler
Bio – Weingut H. u. M. Hofer
Karl Inführ KG
Bioweinbau Killmeyer
Biohof Klampfer
Bioweingut Klinger
Weingut Kloster am Spitz
Weingut Mantlerhof
Weingut Mehofer – Neudeggerhof
Rotweinbau Moritz
Weingut Anita & Hans Nittnaus
Weingut Pferschy-Seper
Weingut Pinkl
Biohof Pratsch
BioSektkellerei Rittsteuer GmbH
Bioweingut Schnabl
Weingut Schönberger
Weingut Sepp Moser
Silberberg Landesweingut, Weinbauschule
Weinkellerei Vinokus
Biowein Weber
Weingut Weiss
Weingut Weninger
Weingut Werlitsch
Weingut Wimmer-Czerny
Bioweingut Zillinger Johannes
And certified biodynamic are the following producers:
Weinbau Andert – Wein
Weingut Fritz Salomon Gut Oberstockstall
Familie Tscheppe Eselböck KG Gut Oggau
Meinklang
Weingut Muster Maria & Sepp
Nikolaihof Wachau
Weingut Karl Schnabel
Bioweingut Soellner
Jürgen Schmücking was so kind to make me aware of a few more producers of wine from organic grapes:
Julia was the moderator of the panel discussion “Online Wine Commerce” at the EWBC 2010 in Vienna
Panelists:
- Rowan Gormley, Founder and CEO of Naked Wines
- Evelyn Resnick, Author of “Wine Brands“
- Andre Ribeirinho, Founder and CEO of Adegga.com
The growing number, and influence, of bloggers and online wine lovers is changing how we buy and sell wine. What does this mean for how we create and use content? What does it mean for the wine business? What new opportunities are there for wine retailers and consumers?
Innsbruck, for all its charms, is not a hub for haut cuisine and it is not located in a wine region. So what can I recommend to a Master of Wine from overseas who will be in Innsbruck for a few days before continuing on to explore the wines of Alto Adige?
A hearty continental breakfast is part of Tyrolean hospitality, so he will likely leave his hotel or pension well-fed. The morning could be spent discovering Innsbruck’s gorgeous old town – it’s lovely arcades, the Golden Roof and a pedestrian zone with numerous cafés and boutiques. He should certainly take a look at the Hofkirche with its impressive cenotaph and bronze statues. Lunch is recommendable at the Viennese-style Café Central which has very good and typical Austrian cuisine and Austrian wines by the glass at reasonable prices in a pleasant atmosphere.
Innsbruck has not only some impressive old architecture, but the star architect Zaha Hadid has also left her mark with the Bergisel ski jump, which is just a 20 minute walk from the old town, and the hybrid funicular Hungerbergbahn. From the café at the top of the Bergisel ski jump he can enjoy a 360° view of the Inn Valley, the city, and the surrounding Alps. For a real Alpine feeling he should take the stunning Hungerbergbahn up to the panorama cable car and take that to the very top of the Hafelekar mountain for a truly breathtaking view that spans from Germany to Italy. In my opinion, the best dining in Innsbruck is currently at Restaurant Sitzwohl, where my acquaintance can enjoy a good wine list and Austrian cusine with Mediterranean touch. Sitzwohl is open Monday through Saturday from 8:30 AM – 2 AM.
The next morning he could take a picturesque 50 minute train ride to Kufstein to visit the Riedel Glas headquarters. I think he would enjoy the tour of the production facility and observing them producing the Sommelier series of glasses. The multi-media Sinfonie show is kind of funky, but I have a love/hate relationship with the also a separate place to purchase 2nd and 3rd quality items and sometime you will come upon a very lucky find there.
Located right next to the Riedel shop is the Wein & Co shop, a wine merchant with perhaps the largest selection of Austrian wines as well as other selected wines from around the world – another place I spend a lot of money. Kufstein itself is a lovely city – it reminds me of a miniature Salzburg with its fortress castle overlooking the Inn river. The old town is quite a little jewel and has several interesting shops and boutiques.
Once back in Innsbruck in the afternoon, he should crown his visit to the Tyrol with Schloss Ambras. There are always interesting exhibitions and events going on there and it is a fabulous place to discover the history, culture, and art of the region.
Other impressive places to visit not far from Innsbruck are Salzburg and Kitzbühel. Both Kitzbühel and Innsbruck have several superb restaurants and despite there being other attractions as well, you could spend days just discovering the creations of highly decorated chefs! But those are two more future blog entries…
Meanwhile this is the view from the top of the mountain on a recent hike near home:
Moderator:
Christophe Macra MW is a native of Reims and an expert in web-based collaborative communications. With a background in business consultancy, he became a Master of Wine in 2008 and now runs Esensio, a consulting firm with a wine trade focus, and Tasteo, which specialises in wine education.
Panel
Rowan Gormley is the founder of Naked Wines, a group of 20,000 wine lovers which has created a £5m fund to sponsor independent winemakers. He previously founded Virgin Wines and Virgin Money.
Eric LeVine spent nearly 13 years with Microsoft before founding cellartracker.com in 2003. It is now the leading online cellar management application with more than 100,000 collectors tracking nearly 20m bottles of wine. With 1.5m reviews online, it is one of the largest wine databases in the world.
Mike Linton is an award-winning marketing professional with almost 30 years of experience. He was Chief Marketing officer at Best Buy and at eBay. Today he consults, writes for Forbes.com, is a Director of Peet’s Coffee & Tea, and serves on the advisory board of venture capital companies.
Jancis Robinson MW became the first non-trade Master of Wine in 1984 and commands an unparalleled international reputation as a wine writer, TV presenter and judge. She is editor of The Oxford Companion to Wine, co-author of the World Atlas of Wine and writes daily for jancisrobinson.com.
MW Symposium – 25 June 2010 – Session 2 – Wine on the Web from Masters of Wine on Vimeo.